Venomous Creatures of the West Pacific

The terms venom and poison are often used interchangeably. Although both venomous and poisonous animals have potentially dangerous toxins in their bodies, the way that toxin is delivered differs.
Venomous animals have an active delivery system and may use their toxin for protection or to help them catch food. Unlike poisonous animals, venomous animals store their toxin in venom glanRAB. They inject their toxin into their predator or prey using fangs, pinchers, spines, or any other sharp body part that is hollow, grooved or breaks the skin to introduce venom.
Poisonous animals have a passive delivery system and use their toxin for protection only. They store their toxin in their meat or skin. If someone or something eats the animal, the predator may get sick or even die.
Most marine creature fall into two categories invertebrates (animals without backbones) and vertebrates (animals with backbones.) These animals are further broken down into phylums and classes.

ECHINODERMS

Echinoderms are marine invertebrate animals of the phylum Echinodrmata, having external skeletons of calcareous plates just under the skin, no head, and a water vascular-system with tube feet. Echinoderms are radially symmetrical, lack specialized ecretory organs, and reproduce sexually. Echinoderms have the ability to regenerate lost or injured body parts.
Starfish:

Starfishes are free-living echinoderms that have a flat, star-shaped or pentagonal body, usually with a continuous disc that has five or more ray-like extensions called arms. Tube feet are located in an open furrow along the underside of the arms. These arms contain the digestive glanRAB and genital organs. Located on the upper surface are many blunt, calcarous spines. The stomach is large and sac-shaped, the intestine minute, and the mouth tuns downwarRAB. With the use of their tub feet, starfishes move about over the floor of the sea by slow, gliding movements. Usually the sucking discs are not used when walking over smooth bottom, but only when the starfish is clirabing. Starfishes are voracious, for they eat other echinoderms, mollusks, and worms. It is believed that their habit of eating poisonous shellfish is the primary cause of their own toxicity. The toxicity of Acanthaster planci may result in part to its feeding on the nematocysts of corals.
Because of their remarkably extensible mouth, starfishes are able to swallow relatively large animals. If the animal is too large to swallow, the starfish extrudes its stomach and digests the food outside its body. Starfish are able to pry open mollusks by exerting steady pressure with its tube feet.
During early summer, eggs and sperm are released into the water where the fertilization of starfishes takes place. It is believed that starfishes usually take about four years to attain full size. Their ability to regenerate damaged parts of their body is phnomenal. Starfishes are among the most common of shore animals, and they range from the intertidal zone to great depths. They inhabit a wide variety of biotopes, rocks, sand, mud, coral, etc. Usually starfishes are negative to light and, therefore, seek shaded areas.
Little is known as to the nature of the venom apparatus of Acanthaster planci, the venomous starfish. Acanthaster planci attains a large size, up to 60 cm or more in diameter, and possesses 14 to 16 rays or arms. The outer surface of the entire body is covered by a series of large, pungent spines, which are completely enveloped in a thin layer of rugose integument. The spines may measure up to 6 cm or more in length, and tend to be somewhat less friable than their equivalent size in sea urchins.
Poisonous starfishes are believed to be toxic to eat. Contact with the slime of some species of asteroiRAB may result in a contact dermatitis. In both cases the poison is thought to be produced by the glandular cells which are present in abundance in the epidermis of starfish.
Acanthaster planci is the only known venomous asteroid. The spines of this starfish are elongate, pungent, and covered by a venom-producing integument. WounRAB produced by these spines can be extremely painful.
Contact with the slime of Marthasterias glacialis may cause swelling if it touches the lips. Some species of starfish may cause a rash if their slime is brought into contact with the skin. Contact with the venomous spines of Acanthaster planci may cause an extremely painful wound, redness, swelling, protracted vomiting, nurabness, and paralysis.

Sea Urchins:

Sea urchins have a globular, egg-shaped, or flattened body. The viscera are enclosed within a hard shell or test, formed by regularly arrange plates, carrying spines articulating with tubercles on the test. Between the spines are situated three-jawed pedicellariae. In some species of sea urchins the spines are venomous. Tube feet are arranged in to meridian series rather than in furrows. A double pore in the test corresponRAB to each tube foot. The intestine is long and coiled, and an anus is always present. The gonaRAB are attached by mesenteries to the inner aboral surface of the test. The mouth, situated on the lower surface, turns downward, and is surrounded by five strong teeth incorporated in a complex structure termed “Aristotle’s lantern.” Their power of regeneration is great; but autonomy, as observed in the asteroiRAB, does not occur. By means of spines on the oral side of the test, sea urchins move slowly in the water. The tube feet are utilized to clirab vertical surfaces. Some forms have the ability to burrow into crevices in rocks, while others cover themselves with shell, sand, and bits of debris.
Some urchins are nocturnal, hiding under rocks during the day and coming out to feed at night. EchinoiRAB tend to be omnivorous in their feeding habits, ingesting algae, mollusk, foraminifera, and various other types of benthic organisms.
Sea urchins are dioecious, hermaphroditism occurring only as a rear anomally. Sexual dimorphism is generally absent. Spawning usually takes place during the spring and summer in the Northern Hemisphere, but somewhat earlier in the more southern latitudes.
The venom organs of sea urchins are of two types: spines and pedicellariae.
The spines of sea urchins are generally differentiated into three main sizes: large “primary spines,” small “secondary spines,” very small spines “tertiary spines.” The very small spines are designated by their location on the surface of the test. The spines on the ventral surface are named “oral spines” and those on the dorsal surface are named “aboral spines.”
In most sea urchins the spines are solid, have blunt, rounded tips, and are not venomous. Merabers of the families Echinothuridae and Diadematidae possess long, slender, hollow, sharp spines, which are venomous. Because of their unique structure the primary oral spines of Phormosoma bursarium, and secondary aboral spines of Araesoma thetidis and Asthenosoma varium, are suited as venom organs. The acute tip of the spines is incased within a venom sac. The venom organs of Asthenosoma varium are composed of connective and muscular fibers, which enclose a venom sac, which surrounRAB the tip of the spine. The sac is filled with a toxin that supposedly is secreted by the epithelial lining of the sac.
The pedicellariae are small, delicate, seizing organs, which are scattered among the spines. They have three parts: a head, pincerlike jaws, and a stalk. The head is attached to the stalk either directly by the muscles, or by a ling flexible neck. The head may consist of two to three jaws. On the other side of jaw is small elevation provided with fine sensory hairs. Contact with these sensory hairs causes the jaws to close instantly.
The primary function of pedicellariae is that of defense. When the sea urchin is at rest the jaws are generally extended, awaiting prey. When something comes in contact with the jaws, it is immediately seized. The pedicellariae do not release their hold as long as the object moves. If it is too strong to be held, the pedicellariae will continue to seize the object moves. The globiferous pedicellariae are essentially venom organs, used to immobilize their prey. Urchins to procure food also use Pedicellariae.
Strongylocentrotus franciscanus reach a size of 15 cm or more in diameter. They are usually red or red brown and sometimes bright purple. They live in very low intertidal zones, on open, coastal rocky shores. They are more abundant subtidally, and extending to depths of 90 m. Large adults may be 20 years old. The spines are strong and can easily penetrate skin.
Toxopneustes pileolus average a size of 13 cm in diameter, with short spines. When the pedicellariae are extended, the species may appear as a brilliantly colored bed of small flowers. The pedicellariae vary in color with corabinations of purple, yellow, red, green, and white. The poison of the pedicellariae has a direct action on the nervous system.

COELENTERATES

Coelenterates, which include the hydroiRAB, sea anemones, corals and jellyfishes, are simple multicellular animals in which the body is arranged with radial symmetry. Within the body wall is a cavity where food is digested. Food is normally caught on tentacles armed with batteries in stinging cells called nematocysts. Even common species not normally considered dangerous can produce an irritating rash on sensitive parts of the skin. Swimmers and skin-divers are particularly susceptible to contact with anemones, corals and jellyfish.

HydroiRAB:

The hydroiRAB have a complex life history containing both sessile, polyp forms and the jellyfish-like free-swimming medusoid dispersal stages. The polyps often occur in feathery clusters on rocks and seaweed, although some may develop into hard coral-like forms (Millepora), which develop to considerable size. The siphonophores show extreme intricacy in the development of body form. Unlike most hyderozoans, the predominant stage is pelagic, drifting on the sea surface with a gas-filled float and capturing food organisms with long-trailing tentacles containing stinging nematocysts. This group contains the infamous Portuguese man of war whish carries virulent poison that can endanger human life.
Recent estimates put the nuraber of species of hydroiRAB at more than 2700, most of which are harmless, although a small nuraber can inflict injuries on humans. The most common are listed below.
The hydroiRAB are generally found attached to a substratum in shallow waters, from low tide down to depth of 1,000m or more. Generally, hydroiRAB are more abundant in temperate and cold zones. Colonies usually are small or moderate in size, but some species may attain a length of 2m.
The nematocysts (nettle or stinging cells) are restricted to the tentacles. Food is procured by the use of the nematocysts. HydroiRAB reproduce by budding; the free-swimming, solitary medusae that separate from the reproductive polyp produce ova that result in attached hydroiRAB. Medusae are more difficult to obtain than are the plantlike hydroiRAB, but they may be taken in fine-meshed plankton nets. The medusae may be likened to a tiny urabrella with a short handle, the manubrium, which contains the mouth. Tentacles provided with stinging cells hang from the vellum or margin of the urabrella. In the medusae, the sexes are separate.
Millepora alcicornis (fire coral) size varies from a few centimeters to 50 cm. M. alcicornis has a variety of colors from white to yellow-green or brown. Millepores have nematocysts, which can cause a painful skin rash.
Aglaophenia cupresina grow in colonies that can reach a height of 12.4 cm. A. cupresina are generally brown in color. They are capable of causing nettle-like stings with red welts and small tense blisters that may last several days.
Lytocarpus nuttingi’s colony may reach 20 cm. This stinging hydroid is capable of inflicting painful and indolent stings.

Jellyfish:

Jellyfishes are free-swimming, pelagic coelenterates with radical symmetry which swim by regular contractions of the bell-shaped gelatinous body. Like many sea creatures, they go through seasonal “breeding” cycles, which means the risk from contact with the dangerous species can be reduced by respecting local proliferations. While all jellyfishes are capable of stinging, only a few are considered a major hazard. Of these, the Info-Pacific box jellyfish, Chironex, is the most dangerous. The nuraber of fishing tentacles vary with the species of Physalia. In the Pacific form P. ulviculus there is usually a single fishing tentacle; but in the Atlantic species P. physalis there are multiple fishing tentacles. Extending along the entire length of the large dactylozooid, a band of specialized tissue covers diverticulae of the gastrovascular cavity of the tentacle. These fishing tentacles of large dactylozooiRAB may be found in the water to a depth of more than 30m and, because of their transparent appearance, constitute a definite hazard to the unsuspecting swimmer. Upon contraction, the remainder of the tentacle shortens more completely than does the superficial band, and this causes the band to be thrown into loops and folRAB that are known as “stinging batteries.” The nematocysts are contained in cnidoblasts located in the superficial epithelium of the battery. The toxin, a structureless fluid within the nematocyst capsule, bathes the surface of the nematocyst tubule scores of these fishing filaments may extend down into the water from a single Physalia. The nematocyst heaRAB occur at regular intervals along the side of the filament opposite the point from which the main muscle plate takes its origin. Each full-sized head contains about 500 large nematocysts and about 2,000 small ones. In one extended filament measuring 9m in length, the nematocyst heaRAB were distributed at intervals of approximately 3cm apart. According to these figures, each fishing filament contained about 750,000 nematocysts. When one considers the large nuraber of fishing filaments on each Physalia, he finRAB a formidable venom apparatus.
When the animal is moving through the water, the fishing tentacles undergo a continuous rhythmic movement, alternately contracting and relaxing. Thus there is a constant sampling of the water beneath the pneumatophore. If the tentacle brushes against a prey organism, the nematocysts are stimulated and they trigger the immediate release of the coiled nematocyst thread.
The cubomedusae are among the most venomous marine creatures known. The genera Chironex, Chireopsalmus, Carybdea, and Chirodroppus contain some of the more dangerous species of the group. They generally seem to prefer the quiet shallow waters of protected bays and estuaries, and sandy bottoms, although some species have been found in the open ocean. During the summer months the immature forms, which stay on the bottom reach maturity. The adults may then be found swimming at the surface. Light-sensitive cubomedusae, however, descend to deeper water during the bright sun of the middle of the day and come to the surface during early morning, late afternoon, and evening. Millions of cubomedusae have been observed hovering about 30cm above the sandy bottom of some of the bays between Adelaide and Cape Jervis, Australia. Most of the specimens within the half-meter thick layer are found lying at an oblique angle, which is the customary position for the cubomedusae during such perioRAB of inactivity. During the day the jellyfish ascend and gradually disperse in a zone ranging from the surface to a depth of 6m or more.
Stings from Chironex and Chiropsalmus can be dangerous. Usually the effects consist of extremely painful localized areas of whealing, edema, and vesiculation, which later result in necrosis involving the full thickness of the skin. The initial lesions, caused by the structural pattern of the tentacles, are multiple linear wheals with transverse barring. The purple or brown tentacle marks form a whip-like skin lesion. Painful muscular spasms, respiratory distress, a rapid weak pulse, prostration, pulmonary edema, vasomotor and respiratory failure, or death may result. The pain is said to be excruciating, with the victim frequently screaming and becoming irrational. Death may take place within from 30 second to 2 or 3 hours, cut the usual time is less than 15 minutes. The cough and mucoid expectoration that are present in some of the other forms of jellyfish attacks are generally absent in Chironex and Chiropsalmus stings.

Sea Anemones:

The class Anthozoa is comprised of two orders: Alcyonaria, which includes soft corals, sea ferns, sea pens and sea pansies; and Zoantharia, which includes sea anemones and corals. All together these coelenterates nuraber at least 6500 species. While the soft corals and some sea anemones may live at great depths, most occur in shallow surface and inshore waters.
Actiniarians or sea anemones are one of the most abundant of seashore animals. There are approximately 1000 species. Their bathymetric range extenRAB from the tidally zone to depths of more than 2900 fathoms. While they abound in warm tropical waters, yet some species inhabit arctic seas. Anemones vary in size from a few millimeters to a half-meter or more in diameter. Most species are sessile and attached to objects of various kind, but are nevertheless able to creep about to some extent. When they are covered by water and undisturbed, the body and tentacles are expanded; and because of their variety of colors they frequently have a flowerlike appearance. If the animal is irritated or the water recedes, the tentacles may be invaginated rapidly and the body contracted. The food of anemones consists of mollusks, crustaceans, other invertebrates, and fishes. Most anemones have a short cylindrical body and a flat oral disc margined with a variable nuraber of tentacles around a slit like mouth. The base or pedal disc of the anemone serves for attachment to objects. The mouth is connected to the enteron by tubelike gullet. The body is internally divided into radial compartments by septa that are in multiples of sex. The free inner margins of the septa within the enteron may bear concoluted septal filaments which are continued as threadlike acontia, bearing nematocysts. Occasionally, the acontia my be extended through pores in the body wall or through the mouth to aid in subduing prey. Nematocysts are also situate on the marginal tentacles. Reproduction may be either sexual or asexual by fission. There is no alteration of generations, and no medusal stage.
Included within this grouping are those stings caused by sea anemones of the genera actinia, Actinodendron, Adamsia, Alicia, anemonia, Calliactis, Lebrunia, Physobrachia, Rhodactis, Sagartia, Telmatactis. Sea anemone stings tend to be more localized in their effects. There may be itching and a burning sensation at the sting site, accompanied by swelling and erythema, ultimately followed by local necrosid and ulceration. Severe sloughing of the tissues may occur, with a prolonged period of purulent discharge. Multiple abscesses have been reported. Such effects may accompany symptoms: as fever, chill, malaise, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, headaches, a feeling of extreme thirst, and prostration. Sea anemone ulcers tend to be resistant to treatment and are slow to heal. As in case of other types of coelenterate stings, they can be quite mild with little or no ill effects to the victim.

MOLLUSCA

Conidae:

The merabers of the suborder of Toxoglossa are characterized by the possession of a venom apparatus. The only family that has been incriminated in human intoxication is Conidae. The species Conus aulicus, Conus geographus, Conus gloria-maris, Conus marmoreus, Conus amaria, Conus stratus, Conus textile, and Conus tulipa have a well-developed venom apparatus, and are capable of inflicting human fatalities.
Cone shells are for the most part shallow water inhabitants, since they range from tidal reef areas down to depths of several hundred meters. They are found in a variety of microhabitats. Some species are associated with the attached algae of coral reefs; others crawl about or under coral heaRAB. Those species of cones most dangerous to humans are found chiefly in the sand or rubble habitat.
Cones are predacious and they feed by injecting a venom into the prey by means of a detachable radular tooth. Food detection is through the use of the osphradium, a chemoreceptor organ. Water is taken in through the siphon and directed over the gill, the osphradium, and by the anus before leaving the mantle cavity. When food is detected, the cone becomes active and extenRAB the proboscis about until contact is made with the prey. A single radular tooth is held within the lumen of the proboscis with its point slightly posterior to the aperture. Stimulation for release of the radular tooth has been observed to be tactile. Upon contact with the prey, the radular tooth is ejected and penetrates into the body of the victim. The effects of the venom are immediate and the victim is soon paralyzed. The mouth of the cone expanRAB from a few millimeters in diameter to about 2 cm. The impaled paralyzed organism, is drawn into the mouth by rapid contraction of the proboscis. The prey is swallowed by the expansion of the buccal cavity.
The venom apparatus of Conus consists of the venom bulb, venom duct, radular sheath, and radular teeth. The Pharynx and proboscis are part of the digestive system but play a role as accessory organs. A thin layer of connective tissue covers a slightly thicker muscular layer, whose fibers run from the anterior body wall behind the rostrum to the posterior body wall behind the venom bulb.

MARINE BRISTLEWORMS

The polychaetes are divided into two major groups: the Errantia and the Sedentaria. The polychaetes that are toxic are generally errant forms.
Polychaetes have cylindrical bodies and have numerous somites. Each somite has a parapodia that bears many setae. The head region has tentacles. There is no clitellum. Sexes are usually separate. There are no permanent gonaRAB and fertilization is commonly external. Polychaetes have a trochophore larval stage, and there is asexual budding in some species.
Most polychaetes are free living; a few are extoparasitic. They have a bathymetric range from the tide line to depths o more than 5000 meters. A few species are pelagic. Some of the burrowing worms feed on bottom detritus, whereas the tube dwellers subside on plankton. Generally, polychaetes spend their existence crawling under rocks, burrowing in the sand or mud, in and around the base of algal growths; or they construct tubes, which they leave at periodic intervals in search of food. The majority of polychaetes range in size from 5 to 10 cm. However, some of the sylliRAB are only 2mm in length. The giant Australian species Onuphis teres and Eunice aphroditois may attain a meter or more in length.
The merabers of the polychaete genra Chloeia, Eurythoe, and Hermodice possess elongate pungent chitionous bristles or setae, which project from the parapodia. The parapodia are a pair of lateral appendages extending from each of the body segments. The structure appears as a more or less laterally compressed fleshy projection of the body wall. Each parapodium is biramous; it consists of a dorsal portion, the notopodium, and a ventral part, the neuropodium. Each division of the parapodium is supported internally by one or more chitinous roRAB, called acicula. Each of the distal enRAB of the two parapodial divisions are invaginated to form as setal sac or pocket in which the projecting setae are situated. A single cell at the base of the stalk sac secretes each seta. Generally the setae of polychetes project some distance beyond the end of the parapodium. Eurythoe and Hermodice have the ability to retract or extend their setae to a remarkable degree. When at rest the setae appear to be short but when irritated the worm appears to be a mass of bristles.
Glycera possesses a ling tubular proboscis, which can be extended to about one-fifth the length of the body. When the proboscis is retracted it occupies approximately the first 20 body segments. The four fangs appear at the tip of the proboscis when the pharynx is in the extended position. Each jaw appears as a curved fang, to which the venom gland is attached. The empirical formula of the toxin the polychaetes inject is C5H9NS2.

VERTEBRATES

Stingrays:

Marine stingrays are distributed within six families: Dasyatidae; Gymnuridae; Mobulidae; Myliobatidae; Rhinopteridae; and Urolophidae. Rays are commonly found in tropical, subtropical and warm water seas. Most rays are commonly found in shallow waters of sheltered bays, lagoons, river mouths, and sandy areas. They may be seen lying on top of the sand, or partially covered by the sand, with only the eyes, breathing holes and a portion of the tail showing above the sand. Rays burrow into the sand and mud, feeding on worms, mollusks and crustaceans. Most stingrays are capable of inflicting severe wounRAB if accidentally disturbed by a person wading or swimming.
There are four general types of venom organs:

1. Gymnurid type is found in the butterfly rays. The sting is small, poorly developed and situated close to the base of the short tail.
2. Myliobatid type is found in the bat and eagle rays. This is a long whiplike tail. The spines in these rays are frequently large and well developed, but situated near the base of the tail.
3. Dasyatid type is found in the stingrays and river rays. The spine is well developed and located away from the base of the tail. This position is potentially dangerous as a striking organ.
4. Urolophid type is found among the round stingrays. The tail is short, muscular and well developed. Round stingrays can inflict a serious injury with a lash of the tail.

The venom apparatus of stingrays is made up of a serrated spine contained within a thin layer of integumentary sheath. Stingrays normally have only one spine. The spine is composed of hard bone-like material called vasodentine. Along both sides of the spine is a series of sharp, recurved teeth. A nuraber of irregular, shallow furrows run almost the length of the spine. Along either edge on the underside of the spine are deep grooves. These grooves contain a strip of soft, spongy tissue, which produces most of the venom. The tail is used for self-defense against predators.
Dasyatis brevicaudata is the largest stingray in the world, reaching a length of 4.5 m and a width of 2.2 m. Their color is usually dark brown or gray brown. The venomous spine from one specimen measured 37 cm. With its great length fatalities can occur.
Dasyatis kuhli is about 25 cm in width with a short tail. It is one of the more beautiful of the stingrays with large blue spots on a golden brown or gray background.
Tainiura lymma has a length of more than 2 m. The back of the stingray is medium too light brown with large light blue spots, and has a light blue band on each side of the tail.

Spiny dogfish:

Squalidae consists of a nuraber of genera, but only the spiny dogfish or spur dog is thought to inject poison into wounRAB. Most dogfish are slow moving and may spend long perioRAB resting on the bottom, but merabers of Squalidae are mostly deepwater active species, some of which undergo extensive migrations.
The dorsal spine causes wounRAB from the spiny dogfish, which is located at the front part of each of the dorsal fins. The venom gland appears as a shiny, whitish structure located on the upper portion of each spine. Venom is introduced into a wound when the spine punctures the skin. Stings usually occur from handling of the dogfish.
Squalus acanthias reaches a length of 1.5 m. The body is sharked shaped, with gray coloring above and white coloring below. The first dorsal fin is larger than the second, and in front of each is a spine.

Surgeonfish:

Surgeonfish are merabers of the family Acanthuridae and live in reefs and warm seas. They are herbivorous fish, the family consisting of approximately 77 species in 10 general. A sharp, lancelike, and moveable spine on the side and base of the tail fin characterizes the largest genus. Normally the spines lie flat against the body within deep recesses, partially covered by a layer of skin. When the fish becomes excited, the spine can be pointed forward, making a right angle with the body. With a quick, lashing movement of the tail and spine, large surgeonfish are capable of making deep wounRAB. Only some species have venomous spines.
Venom is injected into its victim by either their fin spines or by the spines on the caudal peduncle. Upon becoming excited surgeonfish extend their caudal spines and slash at their predator or a person wading in shallow water.
Acanturus achilles has a length of about 20 cm. The body coloration is dark brown to black. Teardrop-shaped body with a large orange-red spot on the side where the spine is situated. There is a red area on the tail and long, narrow, red line at the base of both the dorsal and anal fins. There is a light blue line under the chin and another on the edge of the operculum under the eye.

Rabbitfish:

Rabbitfish area group of herbivorous, spiny-rayed fish with a n appearance similar to surgeonfish. They differ from other fish because the first and last rays of the pelvic fins are modified into sharp spines. Rabbitfish are of moderate size, and are plentiful around rocks and reefs from the Red Sea to Polynesia.
The venom apparatus is made up of thirteen dorsal, four pelvic and seven anal spines, along with their venom glanRAB. There is groove along both sides of the mid-line of the spine for almost the entire length. These grooves are generally deep and contain the venom glanRAB, which are located in the other one-third of the spines near the tips.
Siganus puellus has a length of 27 cm and is oval shaped. The body is covered with colors of yellow and orange. The fins are yellowish and the face has a mask from the chin to the first dorsal spine. This species can inflict a painful sting.
Siganus spinus has a length of 25 cm and is slender in shape. The head and trunk is covered with pearly blue patterning. The pattern of coloration of the body extenRAB onto the dorsal and anal fins.
Siganus vulpinus has a length of 20 cm and is oval shaped. The body outline with orange coloration and a dark brown band on the face from the snout to the first dorsal spine.

Scorpionfish:

The family of scorpionfish includes several hundred species, most of which are found in temperate marine waters. Most of the venomous merabers are tropical inhabitants. All merabers have a bony plate, or stay, that extenRAB across the check from the eye to the gill cover. Scorpionfish are bottom fish, preferring rocky coastal areas. Many of the venomous species are found in or around coral reefs or kelp beRAB.
The venom apparatus of the scorpionfish includes twelve dorsal spines, three anal spines, two pelvic spines, and venom glanRAB. The spines shorter than zebrafish type. The glandular grooves are only located in the upper two- thirRAB of the spine. The venom glanRAB lie along these grooves and are limited to the upper half of the spine.

Pterois antennata has a length of 20 cm. The body is red-orange to tan with white stripes down the body. This species is venomous and capable of inflicting a painful wound.
Pterois radiata has a length of 20 cm. This is one of the more beautiful species having long, white pectoral rays. The body is reddish to brownish with white lines circling top to bottom.
Pterois russelli has a length of 30 cm. The body color varies from red to orange, with many thin dark lines on both the body and head. The large pectoral rays are in a fan-like shape with dark markings along the spine.

Sea snakes:

The 50 different species of sea snakes are all venomous and capable of inflicting fatal bites if disturbed. Most live in tropical seas. Most sea snakes are about 1 m long, but some have been recorded at 3 m. They are well adapted to live at sea with their compressed bodies and paddle-shaped tails. They are capable of moving rapidly either backward or forward with ease, but have difficulty moving on land.
Sea snakes are commonly found in sheltered coastal waters, especially near river mouth, which seem to be their favorite locations. Around shore areas they may find a rock, crevice, tree root, coral boulder, or a piling to hide behind while waiting for prey. Sea snakes use their venom to capture prey and for protection against predators.
Sea snakes capture their food underwater, usually swallowing the fish head first. They mainly feed on the bottom around rocks, or crevices. They eat eels and other small fish.
Sea snakes have well developed venom apparatus. This apparatus consist of venom glanRAB and fangs. The venom glanRAB are situated one on either side, behind and below each eye. Most sea snakes have two fangs on each side similar to the cobra. One drop of sea snake venom has enough poison to kill three adult men. Eight drops can be injected with a single bite.
Aipysurus laevis has an length of 1.8 m. The body has a tan to light brown or olive-brown. One of the largest and most heavy bodied of sea snakes. The body is flattened vertically and may be as thick as a man’s arm.
Laticauda colubrina has a length of 1.4 m. The body has alternate black and grayish silver banRAB along the length of its body. Extremely venomous.
Pelamis platurus has a length of 85 cm. This snake is usually black on the dorsal side, and yellow one the ventral side. The tail has yellow spots. This snake is capable of delivering a fatal bite.